English language learners and special education testing
English language learners are often incorrectly labeled with learning disabilities because of inffective diagnostic tests. A more effective model of testing and instruction would be based upon the educational concepts of scaffolding instruction and the Zone of Proximal Development.
How can special education testing and classroom instruction be adapted for English language learners (ELLs)?
English language learners are often labeled with a learning disability and placed in special education when they enter U.S. schools. In many cases, testing is done solely in English, so the results may wrongly indicate that a child is learning disabled. In addition, the use of discrepancy models (looking at IQ and reading level) to indicate a learning disability has been shown to be an ineffective means of diagnosis, especially for Spanish-speaking children.
According to Aída Walqui, the basic unit of language is conversational interaction rather than sentence structure or grammatical pattern. Walqui argues in favor of testing based on Lev Vygotsky’s concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD). Offering tests based on the ZPD concept would better approximate the learning potential of children, particularly children with learning disabilities. Allowing certain types of assistance on testing would elicit performance more predictive of students’ actual capabilities rather than what they can achieve in a vacuum. This idea follows from Vygotsky’s concept of scaffolding instruction in the ZPD. Applying this concept to testing would involve a process of setting up the situation so that the child enters easily, then pulling back gradually as the child becomes skilled enough to manage it.
Walqui focuses more attention on the secondary level, pointing to cyclical curricula that include the reintroduction of concepts at higher levels of complexity and inter-relatedness. This cycle leads to natural growth in understanding and self-correction of misunderstandings. We cannot expect students to grasp new material immediately — the material must be approached in many different ways over a significant period of time for assimilation. English language learners and their teachers can remember that vagueness and frustration are natural and valid. Scaffolding, especially for complex language tasks, is critical.
What are some ways teachers can use scaffolding with ELLs?
- Modeling: First do a class activity. Give a clear example of what is requested. Keep one photocopy of student work for demonstration. Model language needed, such as describing, comparing, etc.
- Bridging: Activate prior knowledge. Use a device such as an anticipation guide or a KWL chart. Establish a personal link between the student and the subject matter. Have them share personal experiences related to the theme.
- Contextualizing: Academic language such as that used in textbooks takes five to seven more years to develop beyond conversational language. Remember that everyday language is embedded in context and is thus easier for students to understand. When using textbooks, embed instruction in a sensory context with manipulatives, pictures, a few minutes of film, or realia. Make analogies to students’ experiences.
- Schema building: Before reading a text, preview it: Look at headings and subheadings, illustrations and captions, and titles of charts.
- Mini-lecture prep: Use advance organizers.
- Top-down and bottom-up: Process information from the top down (general knowledge of broad picture) and from the bottom up (using vocabulary, syntax, rhetorical devices).
- Re-presenting text: Use the text as a play, turn a poem into narrative, change third-person historical narrative into an eyewitness account, produce posters in groups.
- Developing metacognition: Read, summarize, ask questions, predict.
- Reciprocal teaching: think-alouds, self-assessment activities, posters with steps.
In short, message abundancy is important in teaching, but even more important for English language learners. For native speakers of English, two tasks may be sufficient to understand a concept, while English-language learners may need four or five tasks to achieve similar competence.
References
- Jimenez, J., L. Siegel, and M. Rodrigo Lopez. “The Relationship Between IQ and Reading Disabilities in English-Speaking and Spanish Children.” Journal of Learning Disabilities. 36.1 (1993): 15-23.
- Ortiz, R., et al. “Locus and Nature of Perceptual Phonological Deficit in Spanish Children With Reading Disabilities.” Journal of Learning Disabilties. 40.1 (2003): 80-92.
- Rueda, R. & M. Windmueller. “English Language Learners, LD, and Overrepresentation: A Multiple-Level Analysis.” Journal of Learning Disabilities. 39.2 (2006): 99-107.
- Walqui, A. “Scaffolding Instruction for English-Language Learners: A Conceptual Framework.” The International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. 9.2 (2006).
