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How do hurricanes cause damage to coastal infrastructure?: In Hurricanes on sandy shorelines: Lessons for development, page 2.1; A fully formed hurricane carries three major threats to coastal development: low atmospheric pressure, high surface winds, and heavy rainfall. These threats are realized in different ways. Low central pressure becomes a threat when...; By Dirk Frankenberg.

Piedmont sands and clays: In Clays of the Piedmont: Origins, recovery, and use, page 1; North Carolina's landmass has twice been subjected to major bouts of mountain building followed by erosion. The mountain building events have been described in another field trip in this series, the Roan Mountain Highlands. The remnants of the erosion of these...; By Dirk Frankenberg.

Dune erosion on Bear Island: In Hurricanes on sandy shorelines: Lessons for development, page 10; Figure 7 shows that not all of the barrier islands are flattened when hurricanes make landfall over them. This photograph shows the beach and seawardmost dunes of Bear Island after five hurricanes battered them in two years. The remnants of dead maritime thicket...; By Dirk Frankenberg.

Dune erosion on Oak Island (2): In Hurricanes on sandy shorelines: Lessons for development, page 12; Figure 9 shows another set of oceanfront houses after Hurricane Floyd's landfall. This dune, too, has been flattened, leaving some houses standing on the beach and some not standing at all. Note, however, that the beach under the house in the foreground is...; By Dirk Frankenberg.

Dune erosion on Oak Island (1): In Hurricanes on sandy shorelines: Lessons for development, page 11; Shoreface construction on southeastern barrier islands rarely fares well when hurricanes make landfall over them. Figure 8 shows how this generalization played out on Oak Island during Hurricane Floyd. The houses were behind a small primary dune before the...; By Dirk Frankenberg.

How is coastal sand formed into barrier islands?: In Small sand volume barrier islands: Environmental processes and development risks, page 2; Coastal sand is organized into barrier islands when three conditions are met: There is a supply of sand sufficient to form islands; sea level is rising; and there are winds and waves with sufficient energy to move the sand around....; By Dirk Frankenberg.

Beach erosion: In Small sand volume barrier islands: Environmental processes and development risks, page 16; Figure 14 shows how beach erosion has undermined the deck and foundations of the houses in the foreground and apparently has threatened to do the same in the multifamily dwelling behind them. Note the remnants of an earlier dune on the right, and the roadway...; By Dirk Frankenberg.

Small and large sand volume islands: In Large sand volume barrier islands: Environmental processes and development risks, page 1; This field trip follows another in this series, Small Sand Volume Islands. Readers should plan to take these trips sequentially, to compare the two types of islands. The thesis of both trips is that the volume of sand that comprises...; By Dirk Frankenberg.

Dune restoration: In Large sand volume barrier islands: Environmental processes and development risks, page 16; Figure 15 shows the seaward dune on Bogue Banks in the aftermath of Hurricane Fran and the winter storms of 1998. As we saw on Bear Island, there is no level of sand volume or vegetation coverage sufficient to render seaward dunes immune from storm erosion....; By Dirk Frankenberg.

Beachfront erosion: In Large sand volume barrier islands: Environmental processes and development risks, page 17; Figure 16 shows another example of beachfront erosion. This house has fallen victim to a repositioning of Bogue Inlet as a result of Hurricanes Bonnie and Fran in 1996. The inlet between Bear Island and Bogue Bank had once been located here, but during a 20-year...; By Dirk Frankenberg.

Changes in sea level, great and small: In Evidence of rising sea level: Coastal erosion and plant community changes, page 1; The level of the sea is always changing. These changes may be small and short-lived, as when water rushes up the beach after waves break, but others are large and long-lived — as has been the case with the post-glacial rise of the present era. Small-scale...; By Dirk Frankenberg.

A beachfront house threatened by erosion: In Evidence of rising sea level: Coastal erosion and plant community changes, page 3; Figure 2 shows a beachfront house being undercut by waves. Unfortunately, this kind of damage happens frequently as sea level rises and erosion eats into the shoreline. Erosion into housing areas usually occurs when something happens to increase the local...; By Dirk Frankenberg.

An eroded dune: In Evidence of rising sea level: Coastal erosion and plant community changes, page 4; Figure 3 shows an eroded dune in front of a beachfront condominium project. As in the case of the house in Figure 2, this beach and dune eroded rapidly during Hurricanes Bonnie and Fran, but rising sea level played a role by bringing the sea up to a level...; By Dirk Frankenberg.

Waves and erosion: In Evidence of rising sea level: Coastal erosion and plant community changes, page 5; Figure 4 shows that rising sea level brings the eroding power of waves to the sound side of barrier islands as well as to the ocean side. Here we see the steep and collapsing face of an old beach ridge along the Roosevelt Nature Trail on the sound side of...; By Dirk Frankenberg.

Subtidal seafloor: In Evidence of rising sea level: Coastal erosion and plant community changes, page 9; Salt marshes do well in irregularly flooded areas, but rising sea level continuously converts these areas into regularly flooded habitats and then into a new seafloor. Some marsh plants, especially smooth cordgrass, can tolerate the first of these conversions,...; By Dirk Frankenberg.

Flooded marsh: In Evidence of rising sea level: Coastal erosion and plant community changes, page 10; Rising sea level also breaks up continuous expanses of salt marsh, like those shown in Figures 6 and 7, into smaller habitats like the one shown here. Isolated islands of salt marsh are often, but not always, a sign of rising sea level and marsh erosion. The...; By Dirk Frankenberg.

Developing salt marsh: In Evidence of rising sea level: Coastal erosion and plant community changes, page 12; In case you were doubtful that salt marshes can really invade and take over forested areas, I have included Figure 11 to lay these doubts to rest. In this photograph you will see a developing salt marsh with the trunks and roots of the preexisting forest still...; By Dirk Frankenberg.

Defending the shoreline: In Evidence of rising sea level: Coastal erosion and plant community changes, page 14; Owners of property on both the peninsula and the barrier island are not pleased when rising sea level kills their trees and increases the likelihood that their land and buildings will be flooded during storms. There is a continuing controversy about whether...; By Dirk Frankenberg.

The northern Outer Banks: In Natural and human impacts on the northern Outer Banks, page 1; The United States is currently experiencing a population boom along its eastern coast, and the development of beaches and coastal areas is taking place at an alarming rate. As humans invade the coastal zone, more and more reports are heard of erosion and property...; By Blair Tormey and Dirk Frankenberg.

Surviving storms: In Natural and human impacts on the northern Outer Banks, page 11; The first house on northern Nags Head was built by W. G. Pool, a doctor from Elizabeth City. Many of Dr. Pool's friends followed his lead — mostly because he gave them seaside lots as gifts — and a new era of seaside living began on the Outer Banks....; By Blair Tormey and Dirk Frankenberg.

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LEARN NC, a program of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Education, finds the most innovative and successful practices in K–12 education and makes them available to the teachers and students of North Carolina — and the world.